Wonders of the World

Hi friends....being a CA student doesn't mean that we should only be aware of CA related topics. We should also know other things which can also said as minimum commonsense. So we in this site will also know few  things other than CA.
well coming to the topic....how many of you know what are the Wonders of the World......????
Of course you may know...but may not be in detail right...?
Lets go in brief about 7 wonders of the World

Firstly we shall see what are 7 Wonders of the World.....??

Wonders of the World	Date of Construction	Place of Location
Great Wall of China	Since 7th century BC	China
Petra	c. 100 BC	Jordan
Christ the Redeemer	Opened Oct 12th 1931	Brazil
Machu Picchu	c. AD 1450	Peru
Chichen Itza	c. AD 600	Mexico
Colosseum	Completed AD 80	Italy
Taj Mahal	Completed c. AD 1648	India

The Giza Pyramid of Egypt, the only remaining Wonder of the Ancient World, was granted an honorary site.

Great Wall of China

• The Great Wall of China is a series of fortifications made of stone, brick, tamped earth, wood, and other materials, generally built along an east-to-west line across the historical northern borders of China in part to protect the Chinese Empire or its prototypical states against intrusions by various nomadic groups or military incursions by various warlike peoples or forces. 
• Several walls were being built as early as the 7th century BC; these, later joined together and made bigger, stronger, and unified are now collectively referred to as the Great Wall. Especially famous is the wall built between 220–206 BC by the first Emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang. Little of that wall remains. Since then, the Great Wall has on and off been rebuilt, maintained, and enhanced; the majority of the existing wall was reconstructed during the Ming Dynasty.
• The Great Wall stretches from Shanhaiguan in the east, to Lop Lake in the west, along an arc that roughly delineates the southern edge of Inner Mongolia. A comprehensive archaeological survey, using advanced technologies, has concluded that the Ming walls measure 8,850 km (5,500 mi). 
• This is made up of 6,259 km (3,889 mi) sections of actual wall, 359 km (223 mi) of trenches and 2,232 km (1,387 mi) of natural defensive barriers such as hills and rivers.[5] Another archaeological survey found that the entire wall with all of its branches measure out to be 21,196 km (13,171 mi)

Purpose of Great wall of China

purposes of the Great Wall have included 

• Border controls, 
• Allowing the imposition of duties on goods transported along the Silk Road, 
• Regulation or encouragement of trade and the control of immigration and emigration. 
• Furthermore, the defensive characteristics of the Great Wall were enhanced by the construction of watch towers, troop barracks, garrison stations, signaling capabilities through the means of smoke or fire, and the fact that the path of the Great Wall also served as a transportation corridor.

Characteristics

• Before the use of bricks, the Great Wall was mainly built from rammed earth, stones, and wood. 
• During the Ming Dynasty, however, bricks were heavily used in many areas of the wall, as were materials such as tiles, lime, and stone. 
• The size and weight of the bricks made them easier to work with than earth and stone, so construction quickened. Additionally, bricks could bear more weight and endure better than rammed earth. 
• Stone can hold under its own weight better than brick, but is more difficult to use. 
• Consequently, stones cut in rectangular shapes were used for the foundation, inner and outer brims, and gateways of the wall. 
• Battlements line the uppermost portion of the vast majority of the wall, with defensive gaps a little over 30 cm (12 in) tall, and about 23 cm (9.1 in) wide. 
• From the parapets, guards could survey the surrounding land. Communication between the army units along the length of the Great Wall, including the ability to call reinforcements and warn garrisons of enemy movements, was of high importance. 
• Signal towers were built upon hill tops or other high points along the wall for their visibility. 
• Wooden gates could be used as a trap against those going through. Barracks, stables, and armories were built near the wall's inner surface.

Pathetic Shade of Great Wall

• While some portions north of Beijing and near tourist centers have been preserved and even extensively renovated, in many locations the Wall is in disrepair. 
• Those parts might serve as a village playground or a source of stones to rebuild houses and roads. Sections of the Wall are also prone to graffiti and vandalism. Parts have been destroyed because the Wall is in the way of construction.
• More than 60 km (37 mi) of the wall in Gansu province may disappear in the next 20 years, due to erosion from sandstorms. In places, the height of the wall has been reduced from more than five meters (16.4 ft) to less than two meters. 
• The square lookout towers that characterize the most famous images of the wall have disappeared completely. 
• Many western sections of the wall are constructed from mud, rather than brick and stone, and thus are more susceptible to erosion. 
• In August 2012, a 30 metre section of the wall in north China's Hebei province collapsed after days of continuous heavy rains.

Mostly Visited Areas

• "North Pass" of Juyongguan pass, known as the Badaling.Made of stone and bricks from the hills, this portion of the Great Wall is 7.8 meters (26 ft) high and 5 meters (16 ft) wide"West Pass" of Jiayuguan (pass). This fort is near the western edges of the Great Wall.
• "Pass" of Shanhaiguan. This fort is near the eastern edges of the Great Wall.
• One of the most striking sections of the Ming Great Wall is where it climbs extremely steep slopes. It runs 11 kilometers (6.8 mi) long, ranges from 5 to 8 meters (16–26 ft) in height, and 6 meters (20 ft) across the bottom, narrowing up to 5 meters (16 ft) across the top. Wangjinglou is one of Jinshanling's 67 watchtowers, 980 meters (3,220 ft) above sea level.
• South East of Jinshanling, is the Mutianyu Great Wall which winds along lofty, cragged mountains from the southeast to the northwest for approximately 2.25 kilometers (about 1.3 miles).
• 25 km (16 mi) west of the Liao Tian Ling stands a part of the Great Wall which is only 2~3 stories high. According to the records of Lin Tian, the wall was not only extremely short compared to others, but it appears to be silverThe stone contains extremely high levels of metal in it causing it to appear silver. However, due to years of decay of the Great Wall, it is hard to see the silver part of the wall today.
• Another notable section lies near the eastern extremity of the wall, where the first pass of the Great Wall was built on the Shanhaiguan (known as the “Number One Pass Under Heaven”). 3 km north of Shanhaiguan is Jiaoshan Great Wall, the site of the first mountain of the Great Wall. 15 km northeast from Shanhaiguan, is the Jiumenkou, which is the only portion of the wall that was built as a bridge.

Petra

About

• Petra is a historical and archaeological city in the southern Jordanian governorate of Ma'an, that is famous for its rock-cut architecture and water conduit system. Another name for Petra is the Rose City due to the color of the stone out of which it is carved.
• Established possibly as early as 312 BC as the capital city of the Nabataeans, it is a symbol of Jordan, as well as its most-visited tourist attraction. It lies on the slope of Jebel al-Madhbah in a basin among the mountains which form the eastern flank of Arabah (Wadi Araba), the large valley running from the Dead Sea to the Gulf of Aqaba. Petra has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1985.
• The site remained unknown to the Western world until 1812, when it was introduced by Swiss explorer Johann Ludwig Burckhardt. It was described as "a rose-red city half as old as time" in a Newdigate Prize-winning poem by John William Burgon. UNESCO has described it as "one of the most precious cultural properties of man's cultural heritage". Petra was chosen by the Smithsonian Magazine as one of the "28 Places to See Before You Die."

History

• Evidence suggests that settlements had begun in and around Petra in the eighteenth dynasty of Egypt (1550–1292 BC)
• Though the city was founded relatively late, a sanctuary existed there since very ancient times. Stations 19 through 26 of the stations list of Exodus are places associated with Petra
• Although Petra is usually identified with Sela which means a rock, the Biblical references refer to it as "the cleft in the rock", referring to its entrance.

Decline

• Petra declined rapidly under Roman rule, in large part from the revision of sea-based trade routes. In 363 an earthquake destroyed many buildings, and crippled the vital water management system. 
• The ruins of Petra were an object of curiosity in the Middle Ages and were visited by Sultan Baibars of Egypt towards the end of the 13th century. 
• The first European to describe them was Swiss traveller Johann Ludwig Burckhardt in 1812.
• Because the structures weakened with age, many of the tombs became vulnerable to thieves, and many treasures were stolen.

Threats to Petra

• The site suffers from a host of threats, including collapse of ancient structures, erosion due to flooding and improper rainwater drainage, weathering from salt upwelling, improper restoration of ancient structures, and unsustainable tourism. 
• The latter has increased substantially, especially since the site received widespread media coverage in 2007 during the controversial New Seven Wonders of the World Internet and cell phone campaign.
• In an attempt to reduce the impact of these threats, Petra National Trust (PNT) was established in 1989. 
• Moreover, UNESCO and ICOMOS recently collaborated to publish their first book on human and natural threats to these sensitive World Heritage sites. They chose Petra as its first, and most important example of threatened landscapes.

They Worship

• The Nabataeans worshipped the Arab gods and goddesses of the pre-Islamic times as well as a few of their deified kings.  Dushara was the main male god accompanied by his female trinity
• Nabatean inscriptions in Sinai and other places display widespread references to names including Allah, El and Allat (god and goddess), with regional references to al-Uzza, Baal and Manutu (Manat) (Negev 11). 
• Allat is also found in Sinai in South Arabian language. Allah occurs particularly as Garm-'allahi - god dedided (Greek Garamelos) and Aush-allahi - 'gods covenant' (Greek Ausallos). We find both Shalm-lahi 'Allah is peace' and Shalm-allat, 'the peace of the goddess'. We also find Amat-allahi 'she-servant of god' and Halaf-llahi 'the successor of Allah
• Christianity found its way to Petra in the 4th century AD, nearly 500 years after the establishment of Petra as a trade center.

Recently.....

On December 6, 1985, Petra was designated a World Heritage Site.

                                    Christ the Redeemer

About

• Christ the Redeemer is a statue of Jesus Christ in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; considered the largest Art Deco statue in the world and the 2nd largest statue of Jesus in the world. 
• It is 30 metres (98 ft) tall, not including its 8 metres (26 ft) pedestal, and its arms stretch 28 metres (92 ft) wide. 
• It weighs 635 tonnes (625 long, 700 short tons), and is located at the peak of the 700-metre (2,300 ft) Corcovado mountain in the Tijuca Forest National Park overlooking the city. 
• A symbol of Brazilian Christianity, the statue has become an icon for Rio de Janeiro and Brazil. It is made of reinforced concrete and soapstone, and was constructed between 1926 and 1931.

Description About Statue

• The designs considered for the "Statue of the Christ" included a representation of the Christian cross, a statue of Jesus with a globe in his hands, and a pedestal symbolizing the world. 
• The statue of Christ the Redeemer with open arms, a symbol of peace, was chosen.

History

• Local engineer Heitor da Silva Costa designed the statue; it was sculpted by Polish-French sculptor Paul Landowski. 
• A group of engineers and technicians studied Landowski's submissions and the decision was made to build the structure out of reinforced concrete (designed by Albert Caquot) instead of steel, more suitable for the cross-shaped statue. 
• The outer layers are soapstone, chosen for its enduring qualities and ease of use. 
• Construction took nine years, from 1922 to 1931 and cost the equivalent of US$250,000 ($3,200,000 in 2013). 
• The monument was opened on October 12, 1931.

Disastrous Shade of Statue

• The statue was struck by lightning during a violent electrical storm on Sunday, February 10, 2008 and suffered some damage on the fingers, head and eyebrows. A restoration effort was put in place by the Rio de Janeiro state government and archdiocese to replace some of the outer soapstone layers and repair the lightning rods installed on the statue.
• On April 15, 2010 graffiti was sprayed on the statue's head and right arm. Mayor Eduardo Paes called the act "a crime against the nation"
• The statue was meant to be lit by a battery of floodlights triggered remotely by shortwave radio pioneer Guglielmo Marconi, stationed 5,700 miles (9,200 km) away in Rome, but poor weather affected the signal and it had to be lit by workers in Rio.

Restorations

• In 1990, further restoration work was conducted.
• More work on the statue and its environs was conducted in 2003 and early 2010. In 2003, a set of escalators, walkways, and elevators were installed to facilitate access to the platform surrounding the statue.
• The four-month restoration in 2010, carried out by mining company Vale in partnership with the Archdiocese. The statue's internal structure was renovated and its soapstone mosaic covering was restored by removing a crust of fungi and other microorganisms and repairing small cracks.
• The lightning rods located in the statue’s head and arms were also repaired, and new lighting fixtures were installed at the foot of the statue.
• Maintenance work needs to be conducted periodically due to the strong winds and erosion to which the statue is exposed.

                                         Machu Picchu

About

• Machu Picchu is a 15th-century Inca site located 2,430 metres (7,970 ft) above sea level.[1][2] Machu Picchu is located in the Cusco Region of Peru, South America. 
• It is situated on a mountain ridge above the Urubamba Valley in Peru, which is 80 kilometres (50 mi) northwest of Cusco and through which the Urubamba River flows. 
• Most archaeologists believe that Machu Picchu was built as an estate for the Inca emperor Pachacuti (1438–1472). 
• Often referred to as the "Lost City of the Incas", it is perhaps the most familiar icon of Inca civilization.
• Since the site was not known to the Spanish during their conquest, it is highly significant as a relatively intact cultural site.
•  Machu Picchu was declared a Peruvian Historical Sanctuary in 1981 and a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983. In 2007, Machu Picchu was voted one of the New Seven Wonders of the World in a worldwide Internet poll.
• Machu Picchu was built in the classical Inca style, with polished dry-stone walls. Its three primary structures are the Intihuatana (Hitching post of the Sun), the Temple of the Sun, and the Room of the Three Windows. These are located in what is known by archaeologists as the Sacred District of Machu Picchu.

History

• Machu Picchu was built around 1450, at the height of the Inca Empire. 
• The construction of Machu Picchu appears to date from the period of the two great Incas, Pachacutec Inca Yupanqui (1438–71) and Tupac Inca Yupanqui (1472–93)
• Johan Reinhard believes Machu Picchu to be a sacred religious site.This theory stands mainly because of where Machu Picchu is located. 
• Reinhard calls it "sacred geography" because the site is built on and around mountains that hold high religious importance in the Inca culture and in the previous culture that occupied the land. 
• On 24 July 1911, Hiram Bingham announced the discovery of Machu Picchu to scholars. 
• Bingham started archaeological studies and completed a survey of the area. He called the complex "The Lost City of the Incas," which was the title of his first book. 
• Bingham made several more trips and conducted excavations on the site through 1915, collecting various artifacts which he took back to Yale. 
• He wrote a number of books and articles about the discovery of Machu Picchu.The site received significant publicity after the National Geographic Society devoted their entire April 1913 issue to Machu Picchu.
• In 1981 Peru declared an area of 325.92 square kilometers surrounding Machu Picchu as a "Historical Sanctuary". In addition to the ruins, the sanctuary includes a large portion of the adjoining region, rich with the flora and fauna of the Peruvian Yungas and Central Andean wet puna ecoregions.
• In 1983 UNESCO designated Machu Picchu a World Heritage Site, describing it as "an absolute masterpiece of architecture and a unique testimony to the Inca civilization".
• The World Monuments Fund placed Machu Picchu on its 2008 Watch List of the 100 Most Endangered Sites in the world because of environmental degradation.
• The Guardhouse is a three-sided building, with one of its long sides opening onto the Terrace of the Ceremonial Rock. The three-sided style of Inca architecture is known as the wayrona style.

Geography

• Machu Picchu lies in the southern hemisphere, 13.164 degrees south of the equator. 
• It is 80 kilometers northwest of Cusco, on the crest of the mountain Machu Picchu, located about 2,430 metres (7,970 ft) above mean sea level, over 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) lower than Cusco, which has an altitude of 3,600 metres (11,800 ft). 
• As such, it had a milder climate than the Inca capital.
• Machu Picchu is situated above a loop of the Urubamba River, which surrounds the site on three sides, with cliffs dropping vertically for 450 metres (1,480 ft) to the river at their base. The area is subject to morning mists rising from the river. 
• The location of the city was a military secret, and its deep precipices and steep mountains provided excellent natural defenses. The Inca Bridge, an Inca rope bridge, across the Urubamba River in the Pongo de Mainique, provided a secret entrance for the Inca army. 
• The year at Machu Picchu is divided between wet and dry seasons, with the majority of annual rain falling from October through to April. It can rain at any time of the year.
• The city sits in a saddle between the two mountains Machu Picchu and Huayna Picchu, with a commanding view down two valleys and a nearly impassable mountain at its back.
• It has a water supply from springs that cannot be blocked easily, and enough land to grow food for about four times as many people as ever lived there.
• Two high-altitude routes from Machu Picchu go across the mountains back to Cusco, one through the sun gate, and the other across the Inca bridge.

Construction

• The central buildings of Machu Picchu use the classical Inca architectural style of polished dry-stone walls of regular shape. 
• The Incas were masters of this technique, called ashlar, in which blocks of stone are cut to fit together tightly without mortar.Some Inca buildings were constructed using mortar, but by Inca standards this was quick, shoddy construction, and was not used in the building of important structures. 
• Peru is a highly seismic land, and mortar-free construction was more earthquake-resistant than using mortar. 
• Inca walls had numerous design details that helped protect them against collapsing in an earthquake. 
• Doors and windows are trapezoidal and tilt inward from bottom to top; corners usually are rounded; inside corners often incline slightly into the rooms; and "L"-shaped blocks often were used to tie outside corners of the structure together. 
• These walls do not rise straight from bottom to top, but are offset slightly from row to row. 
• How they moved and placed the enormous blocks of stones remains a mystery, although the general belief is that they used hundreds of men to push the stones up inclined planes.

Transportation

• As part of their road system, the Incas built a road to the Machu Picchu region. Today, tens of thousands of tourists walk the Inca Trail to visit Machu Picchu each year. 
• They congregate at Cusco before starting on the two-, four- or five-day journey on foot from Kilometer 82 or Kilometer 104 (two-day trip) near the town of Ollantaytambo in the Urubamba valley, walking up through the Andes mountain range to the isolated city.
• The people of Machu Picchu were connected to long-distance trade, as shown by non-local artifacts found at the site. 

Threats

January 2010 evacuation

• In January 2010, heavy rain caused flooding which buried or washed away roads and railways leading to Machu Picchu, trapping more than 2,000 local people and more than 2,000 tourists, who were taken out by airlift. 
• Machu Picchu was closed temporarily, but it reopened on 1 April 2010.

Concerns over tourism

• Machu Picchu is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Since its discovery in 1911, a growing number of tourists visit Machu Picchu, reaching 400,000 in 2000. As Peru's most visited tourist attraction and major revenue generator, it is continually threatened by economic and commercial forces. 
• In the late 1990s, the Peruvian government granted concessions to allow the construction of a cable car and development of a luxury hotel, including a tourist complex with boutiques and restaurants. 
• A no-fly zone exists above the area.
• Many protested a plan to build a bridge to the site as well.
• During the 1980s a large rock from Machu Picchu's central plaza was moved out of its alignment to a different location to create a helicopter landing zone. 

Entrance restrictions

• In July 2011, the Dirección Regional de Cultura Cusco (DRC) introduced new entrance rules to the citadel of Machu Picchu. 
• The tougher entrance rules were a measure to reduce the impact of tourism on the site. 
• Entrance was limited to 2,500 visitors per day, and entrance to Huayna Picchu (within the citadel) was further restricted to 400 visitors per day, in two allocated time slots at 7am and 10am.
• In May 2012, however, a team of UNESCO conservation experts called on Peruvian authorities to take "emergency measures" to further stabilize the site’s buffer zone and protect it from pressure as a result of tourism-related development, particularly in the nearby town of Aguas Calientes, which has seen rapid development

Dispute between Peru and Yale University

• In 1912 and 1914–15, Bingham excavated treasures from Machu Picchu—ceramic vessels, silver statues, jewelry, and human bones—and took them from Peru to Yale University in the United States for further study, supposedly for a period of 18 months. 
• Yale has retained the artifacts until now, under the argument that Peru did not have the infrastructure or proper conditions to take care of the pieces.
• On 19 September 2007, the Courant reported that Peru and Yale had reached an agreement regarding the requested return of the artifacts.
• On 19 June 2008, National Geographic Society's vice-president Terry Garcia was quoted by the daily publication, La República. "We were part of this agreement. National Geographic was there, we know what was said, the objects were lent and should be returned."
• On 21 November 2010, Yale University agreed in principle to the return of the controversial artifacts to their original home in Peru.
• As of November 2012, the third and final batch of thousands of artifacts were delivered.

Media

• The 1954 film Secret of the Incas was filmed by Paramount Pictures on location at Cusco and Machu Picchu, the first time that a major Hollywood studio filmed on site. Five hundred indigenous people were hired as extras in the film.
• Machu Picchu also is featured prominently in the 2004 film, The Motorcycle Diaries, a biopic based on the 1952 youthful travel memoir of Marxist revolutionary Che Guevara.
• NOVA TV Documentary "Ghosts of Machu Picchu" presents an elaborate documentary on the mysteries of Machu Picchu.
• The song "Kilimanjaro" from the 2010 South Indian Tamil film Enthiran was filmed in Machu Picchu. The sanction for filming was granted only after direct intervention from the Indian government.
• The site was featured in episode 33 of Are We There Yet?: World Adventure.
• The song Machu Picchu by The Strokes was featured in their 2011 album, Angles.
• Machu Picchu is featured in the 2011 romantic-comedy feature film, Monte Carlo where it shows that Meg, Leighton Meester has gone with Riley, Luke Bracey and they are shown screaming while on top of Machu Picchu.
• The site is featured in the 2011 feature film, Beastly which shows the end credit pictures with Lindy, Vanessa Hudgens and Kyle, Alex Pettyfer in Machu Picchu together and showing their love for each other.

                                           Chichen Itza

About

• Chichen Itza was a large pre-Columbian city built by the Maya civilization. The archaeological site is located in the municipality of Tinum, in the Mexican state of Yucatán.
• Chichen Itza was a major focal point in the northern Maya lowlands from the Late Classic (c. AD 600–900) through the Terminal Classic (c.AD 800–900) and into the early portion of the Early Postclassic period (c. AD 900–1200). 
• The site exhibits a multitude of architectural styles, reminiscent of styles seen in central Mexico and of the Puuc and Chenes styles of the northern Maya lowlands.
• Chichen Itza was one of the largest Maya cities and it was likely to have been one of the mythical great cities, or Tollans, referred to in later Mesoamerican literature.
• Chichen Itza is one of the most visited archaeological sites in Mexico; an estimated 1.2 million tourists visit the ruins every year.
• The land under the monuments had been privately owned until 29 March 2010, when it was purchased by the state of Yucatán.

Name and Orthography

• The Maya name "Chichen Itza" means "At the mouth of the well of the Itza." This derives from chi', meaning "mouth" or "edge", and ch'en or ch'e'en, meaning "well." Itzá is the name of an ethnic-lineage group that gained political and economic dominance of the northern peninsula. One possible translation for Itza is "enchanter (or enchantment) of the water", from its, "sorcerer", and ha, "water".
• The name is spelled Chichén Itzá in Spanish, and the accents are sometimes maintained in other languages to show that both parts of the name are stressed on their final syllable. Other references prefer the Maya orthography, Chichen Itza' . This form preserves the phonemic distinction between ch' and ch, since the base word ch'e'en (which, however, is not stressed in Maya) begins with a postalveolar ejective africate consonant. The word "Itza'" has a high tone on the "a" followed by a glottal stop 
• Evidence in the Chilam Balam books indicates another, earlier name for this city prior to the arrival of the Itza hegemony in northern Yucatán. While most sources agree the first word means seven, there is considerable debate as to the correct translation of the rest. This earlier name is difficult to define because of the absence of a single standard oforthography, but it is represented variously as Uuc Yabnal ("Seven Great House"), Uuc Hab Nal ("Seven Bushy Places"), Uucyabnal ("Seven Great Rulers") or Uc Abnal ("Seven Lines of Abnal"). This name, dating to the Late Classic Period, is recorded both in the book of Chilam Balam de Chumayel and in hieroglyphic texts in the ruins.

History

The layout of Chichen Itza site core developed during its earlier phase of occupation, between 750 and 900 AD. Its final layout was developed after 900 AD, and the 10th century saw the rise of the city as a regional capital controlling the area from central Yucatán to the north coast, with its power extending down the east and west coasts of the peninsula. The earliest hieroglyphic date discovered at Chichen Itza is equivalent to 832 AD, while the last known date was recorded in the Osario temple in 998.

Chichen Itza rose to regional prominence towards the end of the Early Classic period (roughly 600 AD)

As Chichen Itza rose to prominence, the cities of Yaxuna (to the south) and Coba (to the east) were suffering decline.

At some point in the 10th century Coba lost a significant portion of its territory, isolating Yaxuna, and Chichen Itza may have directly contributed to the collapse of both cities.

Location

• Chichen Itza is located in the eastern portion of Yucatán state in Mexico.
•  The northern Yucatán Peninsula is arid, and the rivers in the interior all run underground. There are two large, natural sink holes, called cenotes, that could have provided plentiful water year round at Chichen, making it attractive for settlement. 
• Of the two cenotes, the "Cenote Sagrado" or Sacred Cenote (also variously known as the Sacred Well or Well of Sacrifice), is the most famous.

Economy

• Chichen Itza was a major economic power in the northern Maya lowlands during its apogee Chichen
• Itza was able to obtain locally unavailable resources from distant areas such as obsidian from central Mexico and gold from southern Central America.
• Between AD 900 and 1050 Chichen Itza expanded to become a powerful regional capital controlling north and central Yucatán. It established Isla Cerritos as a trading port.

Site Discription

• Chichen Itza was one of the largest Maya cities, with the relatively densely clustered architecture of the site core covering an area of at least 5 square kilometres (1.9 sq mi).
• The site contains many fine stone buildings in various states of preservation, and many have been restored. The buildings were connected by a dense network of paved causeways, called sacbeob.
• Archaeologists have identified over 80 sacbeob criss-crossing the site, and extending in all directions from the city.
• The architecture encompasses a number of styles, including the Puuc and Chenes styles of the northern Yucatán Peninsula
• The three best known of these complexes are the Great North Platform, which includes the monuments of El Castillo, Temple of Warriors and the Great Ball Court; The Osario Group, which includes the pyramid of the same name as well as the Temple of Xtoloc; and the Central Group, which includes the Caracol, Las Monjas, and Akab Dzib.

Architectural styles

• The Puuc-style architecture is concentrated in the Old Chichen area, and also the earlier structures in the Nunnery Group (including the Las Monjas, Annex and La Iglesia buildings); it is also represented in the Akab Dzib structure. 
• The Puuc-style building feature the usual mosaic-decorated upper façades characteristic of the style but differ from the architecture of the Puuc heartland in their block masonry walls.
• At least one structure in the Las Monjas Group features an ornate façade and masked doorway that are typical examples of Chenes-style architecture.
• Those structures with sculpted hieroglyphic script are concentrated in certain areas of the site, with the most important being the Las Monjas group.

Tourism

• Chichen Itza is one of the most visited archaeological sites in Mexico; in 2007 it was estimated to receive an average of 1.2 million visitors every year.
• Tourism has been a factor at Chichen Itza for more than a century. 
• In the early 1920s, a group of Yucatecans, led by writer/photographer Francisco Gomez Rul, began working toward expanding tourism to Yucatán.
• In 1923, Governor Carrillo Puerto officially opened the highway to Chichen Itza.omez Rul's son-in-law, Fernando Barbachano Peon (a grandnephew of former Yucatán Governor Miguel Barbachano), started Yucatán’s first official tourism business in the early 1920s.
• In the mid-1920s Barbachano Peon persuaded Edward Thompson to sell 5 acres (20,000 m2) next to Chichen for a hotel. In 1930, the Mayaland Hotel opened, just north of the Hacienda Chichén, which had been taken over by the Carnegie Institution.
• In 1944, Barbachano Peon purchased all of the Hacienda Chichén, including Chichen Itza, from the heirs of Edward Thompson.
• In 1972, Mexico enacted the Ley Federal Sobre Monumentos y Zonas Arqueológicas, Artísticas e Históricas that put all the nation's pre-Columbian monuments, including those at Chichen Itza, under federal ownership.
• In the 1980s, Chichen Itza began to receive an influx of visitors on the day of the spring equinox. 
• Chichen Itza, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is the second-most visited of Mexico's archaeological sites.
• In 2007, Chichen Itza's El Castillo was named one of the New Seven Wonders of the World after a worldwide vote.
• Despite the fact that the vote was sponsored by a commercial enterprise, and that its methodology was criticized, the vote was embraced by government and tourism officials in Mexico who project that as a result of the publicity the number of tourists expected to visit Chichen will double by 2012.
• The most recent was El Castillo, which was closed after a San Diego, California, woman fell to her death in 2006.

                                            Colosseum

About

• The Colosseum or Coliseum, also known as the Flavian Amphitheatre is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy. Built of concrete and stone, it was the largest amphitheatre of the Roman Empire, and is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and engineering. It is the largest amphitheatre in the world.
• The Colosseum is situated just east of the Roman Forum. Construction began under the emperor Vespasian in 70 AD, and was completed in 80 AD under his successor and heir Titus. 
• Further modifications were made during the reign of Domitian (81–96). These three emperors are known as the Flavian dynasty,
• The Colosseum could hold, it is estimated, between 50,000 and 80,000 spectators, and was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. 
• The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.
• Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. 
• It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.

Name

• The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. 
• The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, following the reign of Nero.
• In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum (with Caesareum an adjective pertaining to the title Caesar), but this name may have been strictly poetic as it was not exclusive to the Colosseum. 
• By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. 
• The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.

History

• The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80. 
• Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. 
• The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. 
• He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.
• In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire  which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. 
• It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484 and 508. 
• The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.

Medieval

• The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.
• By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre. 
• Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side.
• A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. 
• The interior of the amphitheatre was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or was burned to make quicklime.

Modern

• During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death. 
• In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.
• The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. 
• The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.
• In recent years the Colosseum has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. 
• Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000.Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold when capital punishment was abolished in the American state of New Mexico in April 2009.

Exterior of Colosseum

• Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. 
• It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. 
• It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres (24,000 m2). 
• The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). 
• The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). 
• The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.
• The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic meters (131,000 cu yd) of travertine stone which were set without mortar held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.
• Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic.
• The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators. 
• Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. 
• All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) still survive.Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row.
• They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. 
• These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. 
• The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.

Interior of  Colosseum

• According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000.
• Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. 
• Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.
• The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). 
• The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebeians) and was divided into two sections. 
• The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens.
• Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them.

Arena and Hypogeum

• The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet). 
• It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). 
• Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible.
• Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. 
• It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.
• Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.

Media

• In the 1953 film Roman Holiday, the Colosseum famously serves as the backdrop for several scenes.
• In the 1954 film Demetrius and the Gladiators, the Emperor Caligula anachronistically sentences the Christian Demetrius to fight in the Colosseum.
• The conclusion of the 1957 film 20 Million Miles to Earth takes place at the Colosseum.
• The Bob Dylan song "When I Paint My Masterpiece," first recorded in 1971 by The Band and later appearing on the album "Bob Dylan's Greatest Hits Vol. II," mentions both the "Spanish Stairs" (the Spanish Steps) and the Colosseum.
• In the 1972 film Way of the Dragon, Bruce Lee fought Chuck Norris in the Colosseum.
• In Ridley Scott's 2000 film Gladiator, the Colosseum was re-created via computer-generated imagery (CGI) to "restore" it to the glory of its heyday in the 2nd century. The depiction of the building itself is generally accurate and it gives a good impression of what the underground hypogeum would have been like.
• In the 2003 movie The Core, the Colosseum is destroyed by huge bolts of lightning.
• The Colosseum was featured as one of the locations of Vitaly's travelling circus in the animated film, Madagascar 3: Europe's Most Wanted.
• The Colosseum features heavily in the Ubisoft developed Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood video game. It is the setting for a number of in-game scenarios and can be purchased by the player as they renovate Rome.

Used as

• The Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. 
• The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. 
• They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. 
• Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio.Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale;
• Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days.During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. 
• Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. 
• There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. 
• Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor, and animals would then be introduced
• They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story – played by a condemned person – was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.

Christians and the Colosseum

• There are no historical records or physical evidence as to the use of the Colosseum, or any other amphitheatre, as a place of execution for Christians.
• In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was clearly not regarded as a sacred site. 
• Its use as a fortress and then a quarry demonstrates how little spiritual importance was attached to it, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated.
• It appears to have been only in the 16th and 17th centuries that the Colosseum came to be regarded as a Christian site. Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. 
• Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains a Christian connection today. Crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheatre.

                                              Taj Mahal

About

• The Taj Mahal is a white marble mausoleum located in Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India. It was built by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his third wife, Mumtaz Mahal. 
• The Taj Mahal is widely recognized as "the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage".
• Taj Mahal is regarded by many as the finest example of Mughal architecture, a style that combines elements from Islamic, Persian, Ottoman Turkish and Indian architectural styles.
• In 1983, the Taj Mahal became a UNESCO World Heritage Site. 
• While the white domed marble mausoleum is the most familiar component of the Taj Mahal, it is actually an integrated complex of structures. 
• The construction began around 1632 and was completed around 1653, employing thousands of artisans and craftsmen. 
• The construction of the Taj Mahal was entrusted to a board of architects under imperial supervision, including Abd ul-Karim Ma'mur Khan, Makramat Khan, and Ustad Ahmad Lahauri. Lahauri is generally considered to be the principal designer.

Origin

• In 1631, Shah Jahan, emperor during the Mughal empire's period of greatest prosperity, was grief-stricken when his third wife, Mumtaz Mahal, died during the birth of their 14th child, Gauhara Begum.  Construction of the Taj Mahal began in 1632. 
• The court chronicles of Shah Jahan's grief illustrate the love story traditionally held as an inspiration for Taj Mahal. 
• The principal mausoleum was completed in 1648 and the surrounding buildings and garden were finished five years later. Emperor Shah Jahan himself described the Taj in these words...

Should guilty seek asylum here,

Like one pardoned, he becomes free from sin.

Should a sinner make his way to this mansion,

All his past sins are to be washed away.

The sight of this mansion creates sorrowing sighs;

And the sun and the moon shed tears from their eyes.

In this world this edifice has been made;

To display thereby the creator's glory.

 Exterior decoration

• The exterior decorations of the Taj Mahal are among the finest in Mughal architecture. As the surface area changes the decorations are refined proportionally. 
• The decorative elements were created by applying paint, stucco, stone inlays, or carvings.
• In line with the Islamic prohibition against the use of anthropomorphic forms, the decorative elements can be grouped into either calligraphy, abstract forms or vegetative motifs.
• Throughout the complex, passages from the Qur'an are used as decorative elements. Recent scholarship suggests that the passages were chosen by Amanat Khan
• The calligraphy on the Great Gate reads "O Soul, thou art at rest. Return to the Lord at peace with Him, and He at peace with you".Much of the calligraphy is composed of florid thuluth script, made of jasper or black marble, inlaid in white marble panels.
• Abstract forms are used throughout, especially in the plinth, minarets, gateway, mosque, jawab and, to a lesser extent, on the surfaces of the tomb. 
• The domes and vaults of the sandstone buildings are worked with tracery of incised painting to create elaborate geometric forms. 
• On the lower walls of the tomb there are white marble dados that have been sculpted with realistic bas relief depictions of flowers and vines.
• The marble has been polished to emphasise the exquisite detailing of the carvings and the dado frames and archway spandrels have been decorated with pietra dura inlays of highly stylised, almost geometric vines, flowers and fruits.

Interior Decoration

• The interior chamber of the Taj Mahal steps far beyond traditional decorative elements. 
• Here, the inlay work is not pietra dura, but a lapidary of precious and semiprecious gemstones. 
• The inner chamber is an octagon with the design allowing for entry from each face,
• The interior walls are about 25 metres (82 ft) high and are topped by a "false" interior dome decorated with a sun motif. Eight pishtaq arches define the space at ground level and, as with the exterior, each lower pishtaq is crowned by a second pishtaq about midway up the wall. 
• The four central upper arches form balconies or viewing areas, and each balcony's exterior window has an intricate screen or jali cut from marble
• Each chamber wall has been highly decorated with dado bas-relief, intricate lapidary inlay and refined calligraphy panels, reflecting in miniature detail the design elements seen throughout the exterior of the complex.
• Muslim tradition forbids elaborate decoration of graves. 
• Hence, the bodies of Mumtaz and Shah Jahan were put in a relatively plain crypt beneath the inner chamber with their faces turned right and towards Mecca. 
• Mumtaz Mahal's cenotaph is placed at the precise center of the inner chamber on a rectangular marble base of 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in) by 2.5 metres (8 ft 2 in).Both the base and casket are elaborately inlaid with precious and semiprecious gems. 
• Calligraphic inscriptions on the casket identify and praise Mumtaz.His cenotaph is bigger than his wife's, but reflects the same elements: a larger casket on a slightly taller base, again decorated with astonishing precision with lapidary and calligraphy that identifies him. 
• On the lid of this casket is a traditional sculpture of a small pen box.The pen box and writing tablet were traditional Mughal funerary icons decorating the caskets of men and women respectively. 
• The Ninety Nine Names of God are found as calligraphic inscriptions on the sides of the actual tomb of Mumtaz Mahal, in the crypt including "O Noble, O Magnificent, O Majestic, O Unique, O Eternal, O Glorious... ". 

Construction

• The Taj Mahal was built on a parcel of land to the south of the walled city of Agra.An area of roughly three acres was excavated, filled with dirt to reduce seepage, and levelled at 50 metres (160 ft) above riverbank
• A fifteen kilometre (9.3 mi) tamped-earth ramp was built to transport marble and materials to the construction site and teams of twenty or thirty oxen pulled the blocks on specially constructed wagons. The plinth and tomb took roughly 12 years to complete. The remaining parts of the complex took an additional 10 years and were completed in order of minarets, mosque and jawab, and gateway
• Estimates of the cost of construction vary due to difficulties in estimating costs across time. The total cost has been estimated to be about 32 million Rupees at that time
• The construction of the Taj Mahal was entrusted to a board of architects under imperial supervision, including Abd ul-Karim Ma'mur Khan, Makramat Khan, and Ustad Ahmad Lahauri. Lahauri is generally considered to be the principal designer
• A labour force of twenty thousand workers was recruited across northern India. Sculptors from Bukhara, calligraphers from Syria and Persia, inlayers from southern India, stonecutters from Baluchistan, a specialist in building turrets, another who carved only marble flowers were part of the thirty-seven men who formed the creative unit. 
• Some of the builders involved in construction of Taj Mahal are:

1. Ismail Afandi (a.k.a. Ismail Khan) of the Ottoman Empire — Turkish architect, designer of the main dome.
2. Ustad Isa (Isa Muhammad Effendi) of Persia — Turkish architect, trained by Koca Mimar Sinan Agha of the Ottoman Empire and frequently credited with a key role in the architectural design
3. 'Puru' from Benarus, Persia — has been mentioned as a supervising architect.
4. Qazim Khan, a native of Lahore – cast the solid gold finial.
5. Chiranjilal, a lapidary from Delhi — the chief sculptor and mosaicist.
6. Amanat Khan from Shiraz, Iran — the chief calligrapher.
7. Muhammad Hanif — a supervisor of masons.
8. Mir Abdul Karim and Mukkarimat Khan of Shiraz — handled finances and management of daily production.

Garden

• The complex is set around a large 300-metre (980 ft) square charbagh or Mughal garden. 
• The garden uses raised pathways that divide each of the four quarters of the garden into 16 sunken parterres or flowerbeds
• In mystic Islamic texts of Mughal period, Paradise is described as an ideal garden of abundance with four rivers flowing from a central spring or mountain, separating the garden into north, west, south and east.
• The Taj Mahal garden is unusual in that the main element, the tomb, is located at the end of the garden. 
• With the discovery of Mahtab Bagh or "Moonlight Garden" on the other side of the Yamuna, the interpretation of the Archaeological Survey of India is that the Yamuna river itself was incorporated into the garden's design and was meant to be seen as one of the rivers of Paradise
• Early accounts of the garden describe its profusion of vegetation, including abundant roses, daffodils, and fruit trees. 
• As the Mughal Empire declined, the tending of the garden also declined, and when the British took over the management of Taj Mahal during the time of the British Empire, they changed the landscaping to resemble that of lawns of London.

History

• Soon after the Taj Mahal's completion, Shah Jahan was deposed by his son Aurangzeb and put under house arrest at nearby Agra Fort. 
• Upon Shah Jahan's death, Aurangzeb buried him in the mausoleum next to his wife.
• By the late 19th century, parts of the buildings had fallen badly into disrepair. 
• At the end of the 19th century, British viceroy Lord Curzon ordered a sweeping restoration project, which was completed in 1908. 
• He also commissioned the large lamp in the interior chamber, modelled after one in a Cairo mosque. During this time the garden was remodelled with British-style lawns that are still in place today.

Tourism

• The Taj Mahal attracts a large number of tourists. UNESCO documented more than 2 million visitors in 2001, including more than 200,000 from overseas.
• A two tier pricing system is in place, with a significantly lower entrance fee for Indian citizens and a more expensive one for foreigners. 
• Most tourists visit in the cooler months of October, November and February. Polluting traffic is not allowed near the complex and tourists must either walk from parking lots or catch an electric bus. 
• The Khawasspuras (northern courtyards) are currently being restored for use as a new visitor center
• The grounds are open from 6 a.m. to 7 p.m. weekdays, except for Friday when the complex is open for prayers at the mosque between 12 p.m. and 2 p.m. 
• The complex is open for night viewing on the day of the full moon and two days before and after,  excluding Fridays and the month of Ramadan. 
• For security reasons only five items water in transparent bottles, small video cameras, still cameras, mobile phones and small ladies' purses are allowed inside the Taj Mahal.

Outlying buildings

Taj Mahal mosque.

Interior of the Taj Mahal mosque

The Great gate (Darwaza-i rauza)—gateway to the Taj Mahal